IT 117: Intermediate Scripting

IT 117: Intermediate Scripting
Class 25

Review

Recursive Functions
Writing Recursive Functions
Calculating the Factorial of a Number
Calculating Fibonacci Numbers
Another Example of Recursion
Replacing Recursion with a Loop
Calculating Factorials with a Loop
Calculating Fibonacci Numbers with a Loop
Direct versus Indirect Recursion

Microphone

Graded Quiz

You can connect to Gradescope to take weekly graded quiz today during the last 15 minutes of the class.

Once you start the quiz you have 15 minutes to finish it.

You can only take this quiz today.

There is not makeup for the weekly quiz because Gradescope does not permit it.

Final Exam

The final exam will be held on Thursday, May 16th from 3 to 6 PM.

The exam will be given in this room.

If for some reason you are not able to take the Final at the time it will be offered, you MUST send an email to me before the exam so we can make alternative arrangements.

The final will consist of questions like those on the quizzes, along with questions asking you to write short segments of Python code.

60% of the points on this exam will consist of questions from the Ungraded Class Quizzes.

The remaining 40% will come from 4 questions that ask you to write some code.

To study for the code questions you should know

How to write a regular expression
How to use the os and sys modules
How to write a class definition
How to write a recursive function

A good way to study for the code questions is to review the Class Exercises homework solutions and Class Notes.

The last class on Tuesday, May 2nd, will be a review session.

You will only be responsible for the material in that review session and the review for the Midterm, which you will find here.

Although the time alloted for the exam is 3 hours, I would expect that most of you would not need that much time.

The final is a closed book exam.

To prevent cheating, certain rules will be enforced during the exam.

Readings

If you have the textbook read Chapter 13, GUI Programming.

Questions

Are there any questions before I begin?

Review

Recursive Functions

The body of a function consists of statements
A function call is a statement
So a function can call itself
A function that calls itself is a recursive function

Writing Recursive Functions

The trick in writing recursive functions ...
is to make sure the code will not go on forever
Something in the code must make it stop eventually
Two conditions are required to make this happen
There must be some condition where recursion stops
This is called the base case
And the argument in the recursive call ...
where a function calls itself ...
must get closer to the base case

Here is a recursive function that counts down from some number

def count_down(num):
    print(num)
    if num > 1:
        count_down(num - 1)

Here is what we get when we call the function
With an argument of 10
```
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
```
This function satisfies the two conditions mentioned above
It has base case, though it may be hard to see
The function does not make a recursive call ...
if its argument is 0
So 0 is the base case
And the argument to the recursive call ...
is one less than the value of the parameter num
So the function will eventually be called with an argument of 0

Calculating the Factorial of a Number

To make sure that recursion comes to an end
You must have two things
- A base case: code that that makes the recursion stop
- The recursive call must approach the base case
We can illustrate this with a function to calculate factorials
The factorial of n is written as
```
n!
```
It is defined as product of multiplying all numbers from 1 ...
up to n
The formula for factorial is
```
n! = (n-1)! * n
```
Note that this definition is, itself, recursive
The factorial of 1 has a different value
```
1! = 1
```
This is the base case

Here is a recursive function to calculate the factorial

def factorial(num):
    if num == 1:
        return 1
    else:
        return factorial(num -1) * num

Calling this function I get
```
>>> print("5!:",factorial(5))
5!: 120
```

Calculating Fibonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of integers
The first two numbers are
```
1 1
```
The next number is the sum of the preceding two numbers
Here are the first ten Fibonacci numbers
```
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
```
Here's the formula for the nth Fiboacci number in the sequence
```
F(n) = F(n - 1) + F(n - 2)
```
But this definition only works if we further specify
```
F(1) = 1
F(2) = 1
```
They are the base cases

Here is a recursive function to calculate the nth Fibonacci number

def fibonacci(num):
    if num == 1 or num == 2:
        return 1
    else:
        return fibonacci(num - 1) + fibonacci(num - 2)

To get the Fibonacci sequence ...

I have to call this function inside a for loop

for n in range(1, 11):
    print(fibonacci(n), end=" ")

I get
```
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55
```

Another Example of Recursion

The hierarchical filesystem is recursive
The special directory at the top called root contains directories
Each of which in turn contains other directories
And so on
Let's write a program to count the number of directories

Here is the algorithm

set a counter to 0
get a list of all the entries in the current directory
for each entry
    if the entry is a directory
        increase the count by 1
        run the function on this new directory 
          and increase the count by what it returns
return the count

Here is the code

def dir_count(path):
    count = 0
    entries = os.listdir(path)
    for entry in entries:
        entry_path = path + "/" + entry
        if os.path.isdir(entry_path):
            count += 1
            count += dir_count(entry_path)
    return count

Replacing Recursion with a Loop

Anything that can be done with recursion ...
can also be done with a loop
Recursive functions take more memory than loops
Each time you make a recursive call ...
the interpreter sets aside a bit of memory ...
which is only released when the function ends
So why use recursion at all?
Because it can save time when writing code
It is often easier to create a recursive algorithm ...
than one that uses a loop
Memory is relatively cheap
And good programmers are expensive
So it's often best to go with recursion

Calculating Factorials with a Loop

We can calculate factorials with a loop

set a factorial variable to 1
set a count variable to 1
while count is less than the number whose factorial we are computing
    increment count
    set factorial to count times the current value of factorial
return the factorial value

Turning this into Python code we get

def factorial(number):
    value = 1
    count = 1
    while count < number:
        count += 1
        value *= count
    return value

Calculating Fibonacci Numbers with a Loop

We can also calculate a Fibonacci number with a loop

Here is the algorithm

if the number is 1
    return 1
else:
    set the first number variable to 0
    set the second number variable to 1
    set count to 1
    while count is less than the number
        increment count by 1
        set value to first number plus the second number
        set first to second
        set second to value
    return value

Turning this into code, we get

def fibonacci(number):
    if number == 1:
        return 1
    else:
        first = 0
        second = 1
        count = 1
        while count < number:
            count += 1
            value = first + second
            first = second
            second = value
        return value

Compare this to the code for the recursive version

def fibonacci(num):
    if num == 1 or num == 2:
        return 1
    else:
        return fibonacci(num - 1) + fibonacci(num - 2)

Direct versus Indirect Recursion

Recursion is where something refers to itself
The functions above refer to themselves directly
This is called direct recursion
But you can also have indirect recursion
In indirect recursion a function defines itself in term of another function
And that function defines itself using the original function
So if function A calls function B
And function B calls function A
This would be an example of indirect recursion
The can be any number of functions involved in indirect recursion
So function A can call function B
Which calls function C
Which calls function D
Which calls function A

Attendance

New Material

The First Computer Interfaces

The input to the first computers used punch cards
The statements for each line of the code were typed onto a card ...
which were punched by a special machine
That machine had a keyboard and a hopper for a stack of cards
If you made a typing mistake ...
you ripped out the card and started over
Your program consisted of a deck of cards
Which were fed into a card reader to run the program
You wrapped a rubber band around the deck ...
to keep the cards in their proper order
If you didn't and you tripped and fell ...
you would have to reorder all your cards
The data was also on punch cards
The output of the program was a paper printout
You took this back to your office to evaluate the results
If you found an error in the code or output ...
you had to puzzle through the print out to find the problem
Then you wrote new code on a piece of paper
Punched more cards
And tried again

The Command Line as an Interface

Then came video terminals
They were a combination of a television tube and a keyboard
By this time there were multiuser operating systems
So many terminals could be connected to the same machine
The video monitors used the same technology as television sets
But they did not display images
Computers then only produced text ...
not graphics
The only interface available was the command line
The command line is not a user friendly environment
You have to remember the names of each command
And a misspelled command caused an error

Birth of the Graphical User Interface

The command line interface was OK for technical people
But most people found it very hard to use
Then along came an engineer named Douglas Engelbart
While working at SRI in the 60's he invented a number of things ...
that we now take for granted
- The mouse
- Windows
- Icons
- Menu bars
Engelbart demonstrated these in a famous presentation ...
that is now known as "The Mother of All Demos"
This was the birth of the Graphical User Interface
Usually referred to a GUI
In a GUI you click on icons
Much as you would pick up a physical object
You do not have to type commands
Instead you selected options from a menu
And you talk to the program using dialog boxes
The first commercially succesful implementation of a GUI ...
was the Macintosh, introduced in 1984

GUI Programs Are Event-Driven

How does a computer know when to do something for you?
On the command line, when you type something ...
and hit Enter
When the program needs information from the user
It stops and prompts for input
It will do this for each bit of data it needs
So the program determines the order in which it gets data
In a GUI, the user determines the order
You don't wait to be prompted for each bit of data
Instead you will see a dialog ...
with a box for each piece of information
You can fill out these boxes in any order
When you click Enter the data is sent to the program
Any time something happens in a GUI it is called an event
The operating system sends each of these events to the program
The program then decides how to respond
This is call event-driven programming

Running Graphic Programs

Graphic programs need help
They can't do it all themselves
They need to run inside windows
They need something that will swing into action ...
when we click something
In short they need a graphical infrastructure
Code that will give us the graphical interface ...
that we have come to expect
The programs should not have to provide this code themselves
They need it to be provided by the underlying operating system
A Linux machine can be configured to provide this graphical code
But the graphics code needs lots of CPU time ...
to work properly
If a Linux box is configured just to run services ...
like a web server ...
there is no need to install the graphics code
All you need for these machines is the command line
pe15 does not have the code that supports graphics
So you can't run these programs on pe15
But you can run them on your machines ...
using IDLE
I can also start these programs on the command line on my Mac
Because my Mac has the graphic code needed to run these programs

The Tkinter Module

Python can talk to the operating system using the os module
But the functions in os are limited
They only handle things you can do on the command line
You need totally different functions for GUI programming
The command line is a very simple interface
And does not require much code to implement
A GUI environment is more complicated ...
and has hundreds of lines of code
The GUI is provided by the operation system
Each language needs special functions to talk to the GUI
There are a number of Python modules that have such functions
But we will be using Tkinter
Tkinter is not the only GUI toolkit for Python
But it is the one most commonly used

Using Tkinter

There are a number of ways to use Tkinter
The most common is to create a root object
This object appears on the screen as a window
It is empty at first

Here is a program that creates an empty window with Tkinter

#! /usr/bin/python3

import tkinter

class EmptyWindow:
    def __init__(self):
        # Create the main window widget
        self.main_window = tkinter.Tk()

        # Enter the tkinter main loop.
        tkinter.mainloop()

root = EmptyWindow()

The root object is created by calling the Tk constructor
But you won't see this window unless you do something else
You need to start the event lopp
You do that by calling mainloop
You also need to create an object of this class
```
root = EmptyWindow()
```
I can run this program from IDLE
When I do, an empty window appears

Changing the Empty Window

The empty window does not look like much
But it can do anything an ordinary window can do
You can resize it

Make it full screen
Or close it
You can do all these things using the window controls
We can also add things to the window in our code
The root object has a title method
It sets the window title

But we have to do this before starting the event loop

#! /usr/bin/python3

import tkinter

class EmptyWindow:
    def __init__(self):
        self.main_window = tkinter.Tk()
        self.main_window.title("Empty Window")
        tkinter.mainloop()

root = EmptyWindow()

When we run this, we get

Another thing we can do is change the size of the window
This can be done using the geometry method
Unfortunately, this method takes a strange argument
Instead of requiring two parameters
- Height
- Width
It takes a string with a special format
```
WIDTHxHEIGHT
```
WIDTH and HEIGHT are the number of pixels for each dimension

Here is the code

#! /usr/bin/python3

import tkinter

class EmptyWindow:
    def __init__(self):
        self.main_window = tkinter.Tk()
        self.main_window.title("Empty Window")
        self.main_window.geometry("400x200")
        tkinter.mainloop()

root = EmptyWindow()

Here is what you see when you run it

You can also specify where on the screen the window should appear
The format is
```
WIDTHxHEIGHT+X_COORDINATE+Y_COORDINATE
```
The x and y coordinates are measured in pixels ...
from the top left corner of the screen

Running Graphical Python Programs

Graphic programs run inside a GUI environment
Which must be provided by the operating system
Tkinter does not create the windows itself
It asks the GUI environment to do it
This means the windows on different operating systems look different
It also means that you cannot run graphical Python programs on pe15 ...
or any of the CS Unix machines
They do not have the code to provide a GUI environment

Widgets

When we write graphical programs we use widgets
A widget is a control element such as a button or a scroll bar
All these widgets are classes in Tkinter
We can create multiple widget objects using Tkinter
But they have to be attached to something
Often that something is the root window
But widgets can be attached to other widgets
This forms a widget hierarchy ...
with the root window at the top of this hierarchy

Here is a list of the most import widget classes

Widget	Description
Button	A button that can cause an action to occur when it is clicked
Canvas	A rectangular area that can be used to display graphics
Checkbutton	A button that may be in either the "on" or "off" position
Entry	An area in which the user may type a single line of input from the keyboard
Frame	A container that can hold other widgets
Label	An area that displays one line of text or an image
Listbox	A list from which the user may select an item
Menu	A list of menu choices that are displayed when the user clicks a Menu widget
Menubutton	The part of a drop-down menu that stays on the screen all the time
Message	Displays multiple lines of text
Radiobutton	A widget that can be either selected or deselected. Radiobutton widgets usually appear in groups and allow the user to select one of several options
Scale	A widget that allows the user to select a value by moving a slider along a track
Scrollbar	Can be used with some other types of widgets to provide scrolling ability
Text	A widget that allows the user to enter multiple lines of text input
Toplevel	A container, like a Frame, but displayed in its own window

Label Widgets

A Label widget displays text or an image inside a window
Labels, like all widgets, are objects
They are created using the Label constructor
The constructor needs to know the object where the widget is attached
This object is often the root window
The Label constructor sets the text of the label
Using the named argument text
A named argument is when a value is given to a function call ...
but not in its correct position in the parameter list
This is done by writing the name of the parameter ...
followed by an = sign ...
followed by the value
Like this
```
print(1,2,3,4,5, sep=",")
```

Here is a script to create a window with a label

import tkinter

class HelloWindow:
    def __init__(self):
        self.main_window = tkinter.Tk()
        self.main_window.title("Hello")
        self.main_window.geometry("400x200")
        self.label = tkinter.Label(self.main_window, text="Hello, world!")
        self.label.pack()
        tkinter.mainloop()

root = HelloWindow()

The line in green creates the object
But is won't appear until you run the pack method
The line that does this appears in blue
I'll talk more about the pack method in another class
When we run the script, we get

Changing the Fonts in a Label

Most widgets have a number of named arguments
Label has font
It can be used to set
- Typeface
- Size
- Style (bold, italic, underline)
When specifying the typeface you have a limited number of options
Your choices depend on the machine you are using
But you can usually depend on having
- Times
- Helvetica
- Courier
To have the label appear in Times, 24 bold ...

the call to the Label constructor would be

self.label = tkinter.Label(self.main_window, text="Hello, world!", \
                             font="times 24 bold")

This is what you would see

Changing the Way I Import Tkinter

Up to this point, I have imported Tkinter like this
```
import tkinter
```

This means that I always have to use dot notation when calling a method

self.main_window = tkinter.Tk()
...
self.label = tkinter.Label(self.main_window, text="Hello, world!", font="times 24 bold")
...
tkinter.mainloop()

If you are only using a few methods, this is not a problem
But graphic programs usually make frequent method calls
There is a way to eliminate the need for dot notation
From now on, I will always import Tkinter like this
```
from tkinter import *
```

After I do this, code I wrote above will now be written

self.main_window = Tk()
...
self.label = Label(self.main_window, text="Hello, world!", \ 
                font="times 24 bold")
...
mainloop()

Changing Label Colors

The label color is set using the fg named argument
fg stands for "foreground"
To change the color of the label to blue ...

I make the following changes to the call to the constructor

self.label = Label(self.main_window, text="Hello, world!", \
                      font="times 24 bold", fg="blue")

When I run the script I now get

There are a number of colors that have names in Tkinter

from tkinter import *

class ColorWindow:
    def __init__(self):
        self.main_window = Tk()
        self.main_window.title("Colors")
        self.main_window.geometry("400x200")
        self.red_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Red text", fg="red")
        self.red_label.pack()
        self.orange_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Orange text", fg="orange")
        self.orange_label.pack()
        self.yellow_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Yellow text", fg="yellow")
        self.yellow_label.pack()
        self.green_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Green text", fg="green")
        self.green_label.pack()
        self.blue_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Blue text", fg="blue")
        self.green_label.pack()
        self.violet_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Violet text", fg="violet")
        self.violet_label.pack()
        self.cyan_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Cyan text", fg="cyan")
        self.cyan_label.pack() 
        self.magenta_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Magenta text", fg="magenta")
        self.magenta_label.pack()
        self.brown_label = Label(self.main_window, text="Brown text", fg="brown")
        self.brown_label.pack()   
        mainloop()       

root = ColorWindow()

When run, it looks like this

For a complete list of named colors in Tkinter go here
Colors can also be specified by RGB (red green blue) values

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