IT 116: Introduction to Scripting

IT 116: Introduction to Scripting
Class 8

Today's Topics

Reading Assignment

You should read Chapter 4, Repetition Structures, from our textbook, Starting Out with Python, before next week's class.

Homework 4

I have posted homework 4 here.

It is due this coming Sunday at 11:59 PM.

Tips and Examples

Use Tabs in a Code Block

A code block is a group of statements that are only executed under certain conditions
All control structures use code blocks
There are two ways to indent a code block
- Spaces
- Tabs
You should always use Tabs to indent code blocks
Why?
The reason is you must consistently use either Spaces or Tabs within a single code block
You cannot mix them
If you do you will get an IndentationError

Look at the following code

num = int(input('Number: '))
if num % 2 == 0:
    print(num)
    print('This number is even')

It looks fine but when I run it I get

$ python3 indent_test.py
  File "indent_test.py", line 5
    print('This number is even')
                               ^
IndentationError: unindent does not match any outer indentation level

What went wrong?
It looks like the both lines are indented the same amount
But not really
I used Spaces to indent the first line in the code block
But I used Tabs in the second
It looks good to our eyes
But not to the Python interpreter
The first line indents with 4 space characters
Space characters have the Unicode number 32
```
>>> ord(" ")
32
```
While Tabs are Unicode 9
```
>>> ord("\t")
9
```
As far as Python is concerned, these are two different indentations
This problem is very difficult to detect
We only see the whitespace before the statement
We do not see the actual whitespace characters used
To avoid this problem you need to be consistent
You can indent with one Tab character
Or you can indent with many spaces
It is simpler to use Tabs

Misleading Error Messages

If your code violates the rules of Python you will get an error message
Errors of this type are called syntax errors
The interpreter is good at spotting these errors
But it isn't always good at telling you what the problem is
The most important thing an error message tells you is that your code does not work
Interpreters run through your code expecting certain things
When the interpreter sees a " at the beginning of a string literal, it expects to see another " at the end
When the interpreter sees a (, it expects a following )
If it does not see the character on one line, it looks at the next
This means that the error message sometimes give you the wrong line number
The error occurs on one line where you are missing a " or )
But the interpreter does not realize it until it gets to the next line
A while ago a student emailed me with a problem he was having with a homework script

This is what happened when I ran the code

$ python3 hw4.py
  File "hw4.py", line 4
    print("Your score is ", score)
        ^

Line 4 of the code reads
```
print("Your score is ", score)
```
There is nothing wrong with this code

But there is with the line above

score = int(input("What is your score? ")

If you look carefully you will see that there are two left parentheses, (
but only one right parenthesis, )
If you can't see the error on one line, look at the line above
Unclosed parentheses are often a problem
For every ( there should be a )
There is a trick for spotting this
You count the number of parentheses in a special way
Start with 0
Every time you come across a ( add 1
Every time you come across a ) subtract 1
Should should end up with 0

Review

Control Structures

Python, like most computer languages, has control structures
Control structures allow the interpreter to take different paths through the code
The order in which the statements of a script are executed is called path of execution
Or the flow of control
Without control structures the interpreter would start at the top
And go directly to the bottom

`if` Statements

The if statement allows certain statements to be executed only if a certain condition is met
That condition is represented by a boolean expression

A simple if statement has the following format

if BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION:
    STATEMENT
    STATEMENT
    ...

If the BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION is true the indented statements are executed
Otherwise the statements will be skipped

Boolean Expression

A value that can only be true or false is a new data type called a boolean
Python refers to this data type as bool
A boolean expression can only be true or false
There are two boolean literals
- True
- False
Notice the capitalization

Relational Operators

Boolean expressions are often created using relational operators
Relational operators compare two values
And return true or false depending on their relationship

Here are the relational operators

Operator	Meaning
>	Greater than
<	Less than
>=	Greater than or equal to
<=	Less than or equal to
==	Equal to
!=	Not equal to

Notice that we test for equality using == not =
This is a common mistake that you will probably make many times

Precedence of Relational Operators

All the relational operators have lower precedence than the arithmetic operators

The order of precedence is

**	Exponentiation
* / // %	Multiplication, division and remainder
+ -	Addition and subtraction
> < >= <= == !=	Relational Operators

`if`-`else` Statements

A simple if statement executes indented statements if a condition is true
It does nothing if the condition is false
To execute other statements if the condition is false you need an if-else statement

It has the following format

if BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION:
    STATEMENT
    STATEMENT
    ...
else:
    STATEMENT
    STATEMENT
    ...

If the BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION is true the indented statements following the if clause are executed
Otherwise the indented statements after the else clause are executed

Indentation in the `if`-`else` Statement

Both an if statement and and if-else statement must be indented properly
Or they will not work
In an if-else statement both the if and else clause must be vertically aligned
All the statements under these two clause headings must be intended the same amount
It is best to do that with a Tab character

If all the statements after the if and else are not exactly aligned .you will get an error

>>> if 4 > 3:
...   print("4 is ")
...     print("greater than 3")
  File "<stdin>", line 3
    print("greater than 3")
    ^

A group of statements that are only executed under certain conditions is called a code block

Comparing Strings

It is easy for a computer to compare two strings
The characters in a string are represented by numbers in the computer's memory
To compare two strings, a computer looks at the numbers representing the first character in each string
If the two numbers are the same it looks at the next number
The process stops when one number is bigger than another
Or one of the strings runs out of characters
If one string runs out of characters before the other then that string is less than the other string
```
>>> "mark" < "marker"
True
```
This is the way a dictionary works
There is difference between sorting in a dictionary and a computer
Computers think that uppercase and lowercase letters are different
```
>>> "Sam" == "sam"
False
```
And computers can sort on any character
is that the computer can sort on any character

That includes digits and symbols

>>> "abc2"> "abc1"
True
>>> "abc@" < "abc#"
False

Nested `if` Statements

An if statement can contain another if statement
This is called a nested if statement
Situations that required nested if statements occur frequently

For example, the following code will tell you whether you can take IT 443

$ cat it443.py 
# determines whether a student can take IT 443
# demonstrates nested if statements

print("This program will tell you if you can take IT 443")
answer = input("Have you taken IT 244 (y/n)? ")
if answer == "y":
    answer = input("Have you taken IT 341 (y/n)? ")
    if answer == "y":
        print("You can take IT 443")
    else:
        print("You must take IT 341 before you can take IT 443")
else:
    print("You must take IT 244 before you can take IT 443")

$ python3 it443.py 
This program will tell you if you can take IT 443
Have you taken IT 244 (y/n)? y
Have you taken IT 341 (y/n)? y
You can take IT 443

Testing a Series of Conditions

Sometimes you have test more than one condition
For example if you need to turn a score into a grade you need many comparisons

Here is code that will do that

$ cat grade.py 
# this programs turns a score into a letter grade
# it demonstrates using nested if statements
# to test for many possible conditions

score = int(input("What is your score? "))
print("Grade", end=" ")
if score >= 90:
    print("A")
else:
    if score >= 80:
        print("B")
    else:
        if score >= 70:
            print("C")
        else:
            if score >= 60:
                print("D")
            else:
                print("F")

$ python3 grade.py 
What is your score? 80
Grade B

$ python3 grade.py 
What is your score? 60
Grade D

`if`-`elif` Statements

The code above will work but it is a little hard to read
Notice how the code keeps shifting to the right of the page
Python provides a different kind of if statement
It is the if-elif-else statement

It has the following format

if BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION_1:
    STATEMENT
    ...
elif BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION_2:
    STATEMENT
    ...
elif BOOLEAN_EXPRESSION_3
    STATEMENT
    ...
...
[else:
    STATEMENT
    ...]

The [ ] around the else clause indicates that it is optional
The keyword elif is short for "else if"
Notice that all the conditions line up vertically
This is good because it makes is clear that each condition has the same level of importance

Here is the grade program rewritten to use the if-elif-else statement

$ cat grade2.py
# this program turns a score into a letter grade
# it demonstrates the if-elif-else statement

score = int(input("What is your score? "))
print("Grade", end=" ")
if score >= 90:
    print("A")
elif score >= 80:
    print("B")
elif score >= 70:
    print("C")
elif score >= 60:
    print("D")
else:
    print("F")

$ python3 grade2.py
What is your score? 50
Grade F

New Material

Logical Operators

Each data type has its own set of operators
The arithmetic operators
- +
- -
- *
- /
- //
- %
work on numbers
And produce numbers as results
The relational operators
- >
- <
- >=
- <=
- ==
- !=
work on numbers and strings
But they produce boolean results
Logical operators are operators work on boolean values
And produce boolean results
The logical operators are
- and
- or
- not
The and operator returns true if both its operands are true
```
>>> 5 > 4 and 4 > 2
True
```
If either of its two operands are false, and returns false
```
>>> 5 > 4 and 4 < 2
False
```
It also returns false if both its operands are false
```
>>> 5 < 4 and 4 < 2
False
```
The or operator returns true if either of its operands are true
```
>>> 5 > 4 or 4 < 2
True
```
It only returns false if both of its operands are false
```
>>> 5 < 4 or 4 < 2
False
```
The not operator takes only one operand and reverses its value
So true becomes false
```
>>> not 5 > 4
False
```
and false becomes true
```
>>> not 5 < 4
True
```
To show how the logical operators work we use truth tables
Truth tables have multiple columns
The first one or two columns are values of boolean variables
The last column shows the boolean result of running the operator on the values
Here is the truth table for and

p q p and q

true true true

true false false

false true false

false false false
The truth table for or

p q p or q

true true true

true false true

false true true

false false false
And the truth table for not

p not p

true false

false true

p	q	p and q
true	true	true
true	false	false
false	true	false
false	false	false

p	q	p or q
true	true	true
true	false	true
false	true	true
false	false	false

p	not p
true	false
false	true

Data Types with Logical Operators

Different operators work on values of different data types
The arithmetic operators work on numbers
```
>>> 8 / 4
2.0
```

But not strings

>>> 'eight' / 'four'
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str')

The relational operators work on both numbers
```
>>> 6 > 5
True
```
And strings
```
>>> "small" < "smaller"
True
```
And even booleans
```
>>> True > False
True
```
The relational operators will work on any data type where the values have a natural order
The logical operators are very flexible too
They will work on expressions of any of the data types we have studied
- Integers
- Floats
- Strings
- Booleans

But the way they do this is a little weird

>>> 5 and 6
6
>>> 6 and 5
5
>>> 5 and 0
0
>>> 0 and 5
0

Similar weirdness happens with strings
```
>>> "a" and "b"
'b'
>>> "a" and ""
''
```
And with values of different types
```
>>> "a" and 5
5
>>> 0 and "b"
0
```
I'm not sure why Python works this way, but we don't have to worry about it
When Python needs a boolean but you give it another data type, Python runs bool it
It will do this automatically
bool will convert any number that is not 0 to True

0 becomes False

>>> bool(5)
True
>>> bool(-5)
True
>>> bool(0)
False

and any string that is not the empty string becomes True

>>> bool(5)
True
>>> bool(0)
False
>>> bool("a")
True
>>> bool("")
False

All the scripting languages I know do the same

Short-Circuit Evaluation

Let's say you had a boolean expression like this
```
a > b  and c > d
```
If the first expression is false the result of the entire expression will be false
Because both must be true for and to return true
Similarly, if we have the expression
```
a > b  or c > d
```
and the first expression is true, the result of the whole expression will be true
Again, the second value cannot change the outcome
In both cases the interpreter will not evaluate the second operand
Because it cannot change the result
And it wastes time
This is called short-circuit evaluation
Another term for this feature is lazy evaluation
This makes the interpreter more efficient
But it can be helpful to a programmer because it makes code shorter

Instead of having to write

if divisor != 0:
    value = numerator / divisor

we can write

if divisor:
    value = numerator / divisor

Checking Numeric Ranges with Logical Operators

One of the most input ideas in programming is something called data validation
The idea is to check the data type and range of data before you use it in a program
For example, a program might need to know a person's age in order to calculate retirement benefits
The user should enter something like
```
35
```
not
```
thirty-five
```
since the later is a string, not a number
Similarly, the age could not be 3 or 200
The program should look for mistakes like these
And ask the user to reenter their age
In this case, we might want to make sure that the values were between 18 and 65
When we need to determine whether a value is inside a range we use the and operator
```
if age >= 18 and age <= 65:
    print("The age entered is a reasonable value")
```
If we wanted to determine whether a value is outside a range we use the or operator
```
if age < 18 or age > 65
    print("Please enter your age again")
```

Python allows us to write the first condition in a much shorter way

>>> age = 25
>>> if 18 <= age <= 65:
...    print("Your age is in the right range")
... else:
...    print("Your age is in the wrong range")
...
Your age is in the right range

The boolean expression
```
18 <= age <= 65
```
is the same as writing
```
18 <= age  and  age <= 65
```
In other words the and operator is implicit

Precedence of Logical Operators

When we write an expression like
```
a + b > c and c * d < a
```
there are three different kind of operators
- Arithmetic - +, *
- Relational - >, <
- Logical - and
operator precedence determines which operators are used before other operators
The logical operators are and, or and not
They have lower precedence than arithmetic operators
They also have lower precedence than the relational operators

The order of precedence is

**	Exponentiation
* / // %	Multiplication, division and remainder
+ -	Addition and subtraction
> < >= <= == !=	Relational Operators
and or not	Logical Operators

Boolean Variables

A variable is a name that represents a value in the computer's memory
If the value it holds is True or False it is a boolean variable
Boolean variables are often used as flags to indicate whether a certain condition in the program is true
Flags can make a program much more readable

For example a program to compute the price of a ticket might use the following code

if age < 18:
    minor = True
else:
    minor = False
if age >= 65:
    senior = True
else:
    senior = False

You could then use these flags later in your program to calculate the ticket price
Actually there is a shorter way to achieve the same results
```
minor  = age < 18
senior = age >= 65
```
The expressions on the right are both boolean expressions
Normally you would set a flag if you wanted to check a condition more than once
But even if you only use the value of a flag once it will make the code more readable

Compare these two versions of the a script that calculates ticket prices

$ cat tickets_1.py
# this program calculates ticket prices

age = int(input("What is your age? "))

if age < 18:
    print("Your ticket will cost $10")
elif age >= 65:
    print("Your ticket will cost $15")
else:
    print("Your ticket will cost $25")

$ cat tickets_2.py
# this program calculates ticket prices

age = int(input("What is your age? "))
minor  = age < 18
senior = age >= 65
if minor:
    print("Your ticket will cost $10")
elif senior:
    print("Your ticket will cost $15")
else:
    print("Your ticket will cost $25")

Keep Your Code Short

If you read any book on how to write better they will always say that is that shorter is better longer
That's because people's attention is a resource
If you make your sentences longer than they need to be people will stop paying attention
The same is true with code
Look at the ticket script above

Notice that each if clause has the string "Your ticket will cost"

if minor:
    print("Your ticket will cost $10")
elif senior:
    print("Your ticket will cost $15")
else:
    print("Your ticket will cost $25")

If you think about it, the real work of the if statement is to set ticket price
Printing the message is a different task
We can make the code shorter by having it set a variable

This variable can then be used in a single print statement

age = int(input("What is your age? "))
minor  = age < 18
senior = age >= 65
if minor:
    price = 10
elif senior:
    price = 15
else:
    price = 25
print("Your ticket will cost $" + str(price))

Why did I use concatenation in the print statement instead of giving print two arguments?
With two arguments there would have been a space in the output
It would appear between $ and the price